pengertian , Rumus dan Contoh Kalimat Passive Voice
Pengertian Passive Voice
Passive voice adalah suatu grammatical construction (bentuk gramatikal) dimana subject kalimat tidak melakukan aksi, melainkan menerima aksi atau ditindaklanjuti (receiver of action) oleh agent lain (doer of action) baik disebutkan ataupun tidak. Sebaliknya, pada konstruksi active, subject berhubungan langsung dengan verb dengan bertindak sebagai pelaku aksi. Kalimat aktif dapat ditransformasi menjadi pasif, namun hanya transitive verb (diikuti direct object) yang dapat diberlakukan demikian.
Rumus Passive Voice
Rumus passive voice adalah sebagai berikut di bawah ini.
passive voice
Catatan:
Auxiliary verb dapat berupa primary auxiliary verb be (is, are, am, was, were, be, been, being), kombinasi antara dua primary (is/are being, was/were being, has/have been) atau antara primary dan modal auxiliary verb (will be, will have been).
Past participle yang digunakan berupa kata kerja transitive.
Contoh: She can’t drive a car. (active voice, transitive), He always come on time. (active voice, intransitive)
Perubahan bentuk dari base form ke past tense dan past participle secara regular atau irregular.
Contoh: play (base form) —> played (past participle), sing (base form) —> sung (past participle)
Contoh Kalimat Passive Voice pada Auxiliary Verb be:
Komponen Contoh Kalimat Passive Voice
Subject be PP
I am paid I am paid in dollars.
(Saya dibayar dalam dollar.)
the red velvet recipe is used The red velvet recipe is used by many people.
(Resep red velvet tsb digunakan oleh banyak orang.)
all of my shoes are washed All of my shoes are washed every month.
(Semua sepatu saya dicuci setiap bulan.)
large amounts of meat and milk are consumed Large amounts of meat and milk are consumed by many people in the countries.
(Sejumlah besar daging dan susu dikonsumsi oleh banyak orang di negara-negara tsb.)
the book was edited The book was edited by Beatrice Sparks.
(Buku tsb disunting oleh Beatrice Sparks.)
the books were edited The books were edited by Beatrice Sparks.
(Buku-buku tsb disunting oleh Beatrice Sparks.)
Pengecualian pada Transitive Verbs
Tidak semua transitive verb, kata kerja yang memiliki direct object, dapat dipasifkan. Beberapa kata kerja tersebut yang antara lain: have, become, lack, look like, mean, dll akan terdengar tidak wajar maknanya ketika dipasifkan. Beberapa contoh kalimat dari kata kerja tersebut adalah sebagai berikut.
Contoh:
I have a great new idea. —> tidak dapat dipasifkan dengan: A great new idea is had by me.
The snack contains aspartame. —> tidak dapat dipasifkan dengan: Aspartame is contained by the snack
"Have" Causative
The Causative Verbs
-- Have --
We use this structure to talk about having something done by a third person. We want something to be done by somebody else.
Have is usually used for having something done by somebody who is naturally doing that job. For example, a mechanic, whose job is to repair cars, repairs your car or a hairdresser cuts your hair.
I must have the mechanic check my car.
You should have your hair cut by a hairdresser.
Tense Change: We can change the tense of the have.
I have my car washed every Sunday.
I must have my car washed every Sunday.
I will have my car washed every Sunday.
She has her car washed every Sunday.
I had my car washed every Sunday.
I have had my car washed every Sunday.
I can have my car washed every Sunday.
I am going to have my car washed every Sunday.
I should have my car washed every Sunday.
and to use more tenses and modals is possible.
There are two forms of doing causative with "have", passive or active.
Active Form
Have + somebody + do (verb 1) + something
In active form, we use somebody and base form of the verb (verb 1) after the verb "have".
Mary had the nurse check her temperature.
I must have the mechanic check my car.
We've had a web designer make our website.
I have the cleaners wash the floor every day.
She will have Taner paint the house.
Please have your secretary fax me the letter.
Passive Form
Have + something + done (verb 3) + (by someone)
In passive form, we use something and past participle of the verb (verb 3) after the verb "have".
Mary had her temperature checked by the nurse.
I must have my car checked by the mechanic.
We've had our website made by a web designer.
I have the floor cleaned by the cleaners every day.
She will have the house painted by Tom.
Please have the letter faxed me by your secretary.
sumber
http://www.englishpedia.net/my-grammar/intermediate/causative/causatives-with-verb-have.html
http://www.wordsmile.com/pengertian-rumus-contoh-kalimat-passive-voice
Kamis, 23 April 2015
Rabu, 15 April 2015
connectors
Conjunctions versus Connectors
.
Concept Photo of Linking
Conjunctions and connectors express similar meanings but follow different rules of grammar and punctuation
.
MAIN DEFINING FEATURES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
Conjunctions and connectors both feature in other posts (25: Conjunction Positioning, 30: When to Write a Full Stop, 37: Subordination, 64. Double Conjunctions, 18: Cross-Sentence Meanings, and 20: Problem Connectors), but their importance in professional writing and the confusions that they cause make it useful to compare them more directly.
The main characteristic of both of these word kinds is, of course, that they join or link. However, this a rather vague idea that needs to be considerably clarified. Prepositions too can be thought of as linking words (see 84. Seven Things to Know About Prepositions). What makes conjunctions and connectors different is the fact that they link statements containing subjects and verbs – prepositions can only introduce nouns by themselves or verbs with -ing. The difference between conjunctions and connectors is in the kind of link that they make between verbs. Consider these examples:
(a) CONJUNCTION: Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator, but it has a covering of snow.
(b) CONNECTOR : Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator. However, it has a covering of snow
In (a), the conjunction but is “joining” in two different ways. Firstly, it physically joins the two verbs (is and has) into the same sentence – a new verb with no physical link must be in a new sentence (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). Conjunctions are not the only kinds of words that allow extra verbs into a sentence (others include relative pronouns, participles and question words), but they are an especially frequent type of physical joining device.
The second way in which conjunctions join verbs is mentally. In sentence (a) but says that there is something surprising about the statement made after it. Linguists would call physical joining “grammatical” and the mental kind “semantic”.
In sentence (b), on the other hand, there is only one kind of joining: the mental/semantic kind (the same mental link as the one shown by but). There is no physical joining in (b): the connector however is in a new sentence.
Thus, the main similarity between conjunctions and connectors is that they both show a mental link between two statements containing a verb. The main difference is that only conjunctions also create a physical, grammatical link. It is probably because of this difference that some people call connectors “logical connectors”.
Knowing this difference is, of course, not enough to ensure that connectors and conjunctions are used correctly; one must also know which words or phrases are conjunctions and which are connectors. Unfortunately, there is no rule on this: when you come across one of these expressions, you just have to remember whether it is a conjunction or a connector. The meaning is no guide because, as shown above, both types of expression can have the same meaning.
.
OTHER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
The main other differences concern punctuation and sentence positions. They are:
(i) A conjunction does not usually have a following comma but a connector does (see 50. Right & Wrong Comma Places).
(ii) A conjunction always comes before the subject of its verb, but a connector may come later. In example (b), however can be placed after any of the other words in its sentence.
(iii) Most conjunctions may go either before or between the two verbs that they join, but connectors must go between them. In sentence (a) above, but is actually exceptional in that it cannot go before the two verbs, just like a connector. The conjunction although is more typical in its possibilities:
(c) Although chickens have wings, they cannot fly.
(d) Chickens cannot fly although they have wings.
Lists of conjunctions like but (called “coordinating”) and conjunctions like although (called “subordinating”) can be found under 36. Words Left out to Avoid Repetition. See also 37. Subordination: Grammar for Good Repetition.
.
MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
In the above examples, the mental link, or meaning, of the conjunctions and the connector was the same: surprise about the statement made with the second verb. This meaning is one of very many that different conjunctions and connectors express. I do not propose to present all of these meanings (they can be discovered with a dictionary), but a few more examples may be helpful:
(e) CONJUNCTION: After evening falls, mosquitoes become active.
(f) CONNECTOR : Evening falls. Then/Afterwards mosquitoes become active.
The mental link here is that the event expressed by the second verb has a later time than the event expressed by the first verb.
(g) CONJUNCTION: If it rains, the visit will be cancelled.
If it rains …
(h) CONNECTOR : It might rain. In that case the visit will be cancelled.
In each of these, the first verb helps to show a hypothetical future event and the second one indicates a consequence of that.
Two points can be made about the variety of meanings that are possible with conjunctions and connectors. Firstly, most conjunctions seem to have many connectors of similar meaning. Here are some more examples:
.
Lists of Connectors Corresponding to Individual Conjunctions
.
AND
also, in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, besides (this), then, next, subsequently, afterwards, as a result.
BUT
however, even so, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, yet, all the same, by contrast, in contrast, on the other hand, on the contrary.
SO, SO THAT (also BECAUSE/SINCE at the start)
therefore, thus, consequently, hence, for this reason, as a result, that is why (for more please see 32. Expressing Consequences and 20. Problem Connectors).
SO (following “JUST AS …)
similarly, likewise, in a similar way, in the same way (see 82. Pitfalls in Making Comparisons)
OR
alternatively, if not, otherwise.
BECAUSE (between the linked verbs)
this is because, the reason is that.
BEFORE (before the linked verbs)
beforehand, before this, first.
BEFORE (between the linked verbs)
then, next, subsequently, afterwards.
WHILE
meanwhile, at this time, at that moment.
The second point to be made about the meaning variety of conjunctions and connectors is that connectors are more numerous, and hence express more meanings, than conjunctions. This is evidenced not just by the fact that there are many connectors for each single conjunction, but also because many additional connectors exist that have no corresponding conjunction at all.
The reason why there are many connectors for each conjunction is that conjunctions, like most small words, have many different meanings (see 3. Multi-Use Words), while connectors tend to express just a single meaning. The post 20. Problem Connectors attempts to explain some of the more problematic of these more subtle meanings. Examples of connectors with no apparent partner conjunction are for example, for instance, in particular, in fact, indeed, instead, in short, at least and at last. For more about the first two of these, please see 33. Complex Example-Giving. Readers seeking a comprehensive list of English connectors with their meanings might find satisfaction in the book Cambridge Grammar of English.
.
CHOOSING WHETHER TO USE A CONJUNCTION OR A CONNECTOR
There seem to be a number of considerations in choosing between a conjunction and a connector. The first is to do with whether or not the next words say something already known to the reader. In sentence (e) above, the conjunction after suggests that evening falls is already known to the reader, and the main message is about mosquitoes becoming active; while in (f) the connector afterwards indicates that evening falling is something the reader is being told here because it has not already been mentioned. The ability of conjunctions to introduce already-known ideas seems to belong particularly to the subordinating kind (see 37. Subordination), but only when they are used at the start of the sentence before both of the joined verbs.
The second main consideration in choosing between a conjunction and a connector could be the degree of separateness that we might wish to give to the two joined verbs. Putting them into the same sentence with a conjunction suggests that they are somehow part of the same idea, while putting them into two different sentences suggests that they are two different points. Compare these examples:
(i) Cars are dangerous and they pollute.
(j) Cars are dangerous. Moreover, they pollute.
Sentence (i) seems to be saying one thing by means of two points, that cars are bad; while (j) appears to be emphasising that there are two separate disadvantages.
A third possible reason for choosing to say something in a new sentence by means of a connector could be the fact that connectors tend to have a more precise meaning than conjunctions. Being precise is especially important in academic and professional writing, and that might explain why connectors are especially common in those fields.
https://guinlist.wordpress.com/2012/11/26/40-conjunctions-versus-connectors/
.
Concept Photo of Linking
Conjunctions and connectors express similar meanings but follow different rules of grammar and punctuation
.
MAIN DEFINING FEATURES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
Conjunctions and connectors both feature in other posts (25: Conjunction Positioning, 30: When to Write a Full Stop, 37: Subordination, 64. Double Conjunctions, 18: Cross-Sentence Meanings, and 20: Problem Connectors), but their importance in professional writing and the confusions that they cause make it useful to compare them more directly.
The main characteristic of both of these word kinds is, of course, that they join or link. However, this a rather vague idea that needs to be considerably clarified. Prepositions too can be thought of as linking words (see 84. Seven Things to Know About Prepositions). What makes conjunctions and connectors different is the fact that they link statements containing subjects and verbs – prepositions can only introduce nouns by themselves or verbs with -ing. The difference between conjunctions and connectors is in the kind of link that they make between verbs. Consider these examples:
(a) CONJUNCTION: Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator, but it has a covering of snow.
(b) CONNECTOR : Mount Kilimanjaro is on the Equator. However, it has a covering of snow
In (a), the conjunction but is “joining” in two different ways. Firstly, it physically joins the two verbs (is and has) into the same sentence – a new verb with no physical link must be in a new sentence (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). Conjunctions are not the only kinds of words that allow extra verbs into a sentence (others include relative pronouns, participles and question words), but they are an especially frequent type of physical joining device.
The second way in which conjunctions join verbs is mentally. In sentence (a) but says that there is something surprising about the statement made after it. Linguists would call physical joining “grammatical” and the mental kind “semantic”.
In sentence (b), on the other hand, there is only one kind of joining: the mental/semantic kind (the same mental link as the one shown by but). There is no physical joining in (b): the connector however is in a new sentence.
Thus, the main similarity between conjunctions and connectors is that they both show a mental link between two statements containing a verb. The main difference is that only conjunctions also create a physical, grammatical link. It is probably because of this difference that some people call connectors “logical connectors”.
Knowing this difference is, of course, not enough to ensure that connectors and conjunctions are used correctly; one must also know which words or phrases are conjunctions and which are connectors. Unfortunately, there is no rule on this: when you come across one of these expressions, you just have to remember whether it is a conjunction or a connector. The meaning is no guide because, as shown above, both types of expression can have the same meaning.
.
OTHER DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
The main other differences concern punctuation and sentence positions. They are:
(i) A conjunction does not usually have a following comma but a connector does (see 50. Right & Wrong Comma Places).
(ii) A conjunction always comes before the subject of its verb, but a connector may come later. In example (b), however can be placed after any of the other words in its sentence.
(iii) Most conjunctions may go either before or between the two verbs that they join, but connectors must go between them. In sentence (a) above, but is actually exceptional in that it cannot go before the two verbs, just like a connector. The conjunction although is more typical in its possibilities:
(c) Although chickens have wings, they cannot fly.
(d) Chickens cannot fly although they have wings.
Lists of conjunctions like but (called “coordinating”) and conjunctions like although (called “subordinating”) can be found under 36. Words Left out to Avoid Repetition. See also 37. Subordination: Grammar for Good Repetition.
.
MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY CONJUNCTIONS AND CONNECTORS
In the above examples, the mental link, or meaning, of the conjunctions and the connector was the same: surprise about the statement made with the second verb. This meaning is one of very many that different conjunctions and connectors express. I do not propose to present all of these meanings (they can be discovered with a dictionary), but a few more examples may be helpful:
(e) CONJUNCTION: After evening falls, mosquitoes become active.
(f) CONNECTOR : Evening falls. Then/Afterwards mosquitoes become active.
The mental link here is that the event expressed by the second verb has a later time than the event expressed by the first verb.
(g) CONJUNCTION: If it rains, the visit will be cancelled.
If it rains …
(h) CONNECTOR : It might rain. In that case the visit will be cancelled.
In each of these, the first verb helps to show a hypothetical future event and the second one indicates a consequence of that.
Two points can be made about the variety of meanings that are possible with conjunctions and connectors. Firstly, most conjunctions seem to have many connectors of similar meaning. Here are some more examples:
.
Lists of Connectors Corresponding to Individual Conjunctions
.
AND
also, in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, besides (this), then, next, subsequently, afterwards, as a result.
BUT
however, even so, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, yet, all the same, by contrast, in contrast, on the other hand, on the contrary.
SO, SO THAT (also BECAUSE/SINCE at the start)
therefore, thus, consequently, hence, for this reason, as a result, that is why (for more please see 32. Expressing Consequences and 20. Problem Connectors).
SO (following “JUST AS …)
similarly, likewise, in a similar way, in the same way (see 82. Pitfalls in Making Comparisons)
OR
alternatively, if not, otherwise.
BECAUSE (between the linked verbs)
this is because, the reason is that.
BEFORE (before the linked verbs)
beforehand, before this, first.
BEFORE (between the linked verbs)
then, next, subsequently, afterwards.
WHILE
meanwhile, at this time, at that moment.
The second point to be made about the meaning variety of conjunctions and connectors is that connectors are more numerous, and hence express more meanings, than conjunctions. This is evidenced not just by the fact that there are many connectors for each single conjunction, but also because many additional connectors exist that have no corresponding conjunction at all.
The reason why there are many connectors for each conjunction is that conjunctions, like most small words, have many different meanings (see 3. Multi-Use Words), while connectors tend to express just a single meaning. The post 20. Problem Connectors attempts to explain some of the more problematic of these more subtle meanings. Examples of connectors with no apparent partner conjunction are for example, for instance, in particular, in fact, indeed, instead, in short, at least and at last. For more about the first two of these, please see 33. Complex Example-Giving. Readers seeking a comprehensive list of English connectors with their meanings might find satisfaction in the book Cambridge Grammar of English.
.
CHOOSING WHETHER TO USE A CONJUNCTION OR A CONNECTOR
There seem to be a number of considerations in choosing between a conjunction and a connector. The first is to do with whether or not the next words say something already known to the reader. In sentence (e) above, the conjunction after suggests that evening falls is already known to the reader, and the main message is about mosquitoes becoming active; while in (f) the connector afterwards indicates that evening falling is something the reader is being told here because it has not already been mentioned. The ability of conjunctions to introduce already-known ideas seems to belong particularly to the subordinating kind (see 37. Subordination), but only when they are used at the start of the sentence before both of the joined verbs.
The second main consideration in choosing between a conjunction and a connector could be the degree of separateness that we might wish to give to the two joined verbs. Putting them into the same sentence with a conjunction suggests that they are somehow part of the same idea, while putting them into two different sentences suggests that they are two different points. Compare these examples:
(i) Cars are dangerous and they pollute.
(j) Cars are dangerous. Moreover, they pollute.
Sentence (i) seems to be saying one thing by means of two points, that cars are bad; while (j) appears to be emphasising that there are two separate disadvantages.
A third possible reason for choosing to say something in a new sentence by means of a connector could be the fact that connectors tend to have a more precise meaning than conjunctions. Being precise is especially important in academic and professional writing, and that might explain why connectors are especially common in those fields.
https://guinlist.wordpress.com/2012/11/26/40-conjunctions-versus-connectors/
adj and adv
Adjectives and Adverbs
Definitions
An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word they modify.
Examples:
That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior.
Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:
Examples:
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.
An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Examples:
He speaks slowly (modifies the verb speaks)
He is especially clever (modifies the adjective clever)
He speaks all too slowly (modifies the adverb slowly)
An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extent—how often or how much (e.g., daily, completely).
Examples:
He speaks slowly (answers the question how)
He speaks very slowly (answers the question how slowly)
Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.
Examples:
She thinks quick/quickly.
How does she think? Quickly.
She is a quick/quickly thinker.
Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -ly is attached.
She thinks fast/fastly.
Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has -ly attached to it.
We performed bad/badly.
Badly describes how we performed, so -ly is added.
Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems. It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs, such as taste, smell, look, feel, etc., that pertain to the senses. Adverbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which require adjectives instead.
Examples:
Roses smell sweet/sweetly.
Do the roses actively smell with noses? No; in this case, smell is a linking verb—which requires an adjective to modify roses—so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily to us.
Did the woman look with her eyes, or are we describing her appearance? We are describing her appearance (she appeared angry), so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches.
Here the woman actively looked (used her eyes), so the -ly is added.
She feels bad/badly about the news.
She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.
Rule 3. The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.
Examples:
You did a good job.
Good describes the job.
You did the job well.
Well answers how.
You smell good today.
Good describes your fragrance, not how you smell with your nose, so using the adjective is correct.
You smell well for someone with a cold.
You are actively smelling with your nose here, so use the adverb.
Rule 4. The word well can be an adjective, too. When referring to health, we often use well rather than good.
Examples:
You do not look well today.
I don't feel well, either.
Rule 5. Adjectives come in three forms, also called degrees. An adjective in its normal or usual form is called a positive degree adjective. There are also the comparative and superlative degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
sweet sweeter sweetest
bad worse worst
efficient more efficient most efficient
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form of comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparative adjective:
Example: She is the cleverer of the two women (never cleverest)
The word cleverest is what is called the superlative form of clever. Use it only when comparing three or more things:
Example: She is the cleverest of them all.
Incorrect: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like best?
Correct: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like better?
Rule 6. There are also three degrees of adverbs. In formal usage, do not drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form.
Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did.
Correct: She spoke more quickly than he did.
Incorrect: Talk quieter.
Correct: Talk more quietly.
Rule 7. When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
Examples:
This house is for sale.
This is an adjective.
This is for sale.
This is a pronoun.
http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/adjAdv.asp
Definitions
An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word they modify.
Examples:
That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior.
Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:
Examples:
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.
An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Examples:
He speaks slowly (modifies the verb speaks)
He is especially clever (modifies the adjective clever)
He speaks all too slowly (modifies the adverb slowly)
An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extent—how often or how much (e.g., daily, completely).
Examples:
He speaks slowly (answers the question how)
He speaks very slowly (answers the question how slowly)
Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.
Examples:
She thinks quick/quickly.
How does she think? Quickly.
She is a quick/quickly thinker.
Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -ly is attached.
She thinks fast/fastly.
Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has -ly attached to it.
We performed bad/badly.
Badly describes how we performed, so -ly is added.
Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems. It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs, such as taste, smell, look, feel, etc., that pertain to the senses. Adverbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which require adjectives instead.
Examples:
Roses smell sweet/sweetly.
Do the roses actively smell with noses? No; in this case, smell is a linking verb—which requires an adjective to modify roses—so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily to us.
Did the woman look with her eyes, or are we describing her appearance? We are describing her appearance (she appeared angry), so no -ly.
The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches.
Here the woman actively looked (used her eyes), so the -ly is added.
She feels bad/badly about the news.
She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.
Rule 3. The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.
Examples:
You did a good job.
Good describes the job.
You did the job well.
Well answers how.
You smell good today.
Good describes your fragrance, not how you smell with your nose, so using the adjective is correct.
You smell well for someone with a cold.
You are actively smelling with your nose here, so use the adverb.
Rule 4. The word well can be an adjective, too. When referring to health, we often use well rather than good.
Examples:
You do not look well today.
I don't feel well, either.
Rule 5. Adjectives come in three forms, also called degrees. An adjective in its normal or usual form is called a positive degree adjective. There are also the comparative and superlative degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
sweet sweeter sweetest
bad worse worst
efficient more efficient most efficient
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form of comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparative adjective:
Example: She is the cleverer of the two women (never cleverest)
The word cleverest is what is called the superlative form of clever. Use it only when comparing three or more things:
Example: She is the cleverest of them all.
Incorrect: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like best?
Correct: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like better?
Rule 6. There are also three degrees of adverbs. In formal usage, do not drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form.
Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did.
Correct: She spoke more quickly than he did.
Incorrect: Talk quieter.
Correct: Talk more quietly.
Rule 7. When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
Examples:
This house is for sale.
This is an adjective.
This is for sale.
This is a pronoun.
http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/adjAdv.asp
modal auxiliary
Helping and
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs
#
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
I shall go now.
He had won the election.
They did write that novel together.
I am going now.
He was winning the election.
They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
"Shall we go now?"
"Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
You really shouldn't do that.
If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
I don't study at night.
She doesn't work here anymore.
Do you attend this school?
Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
Did your grandmother know Truman?
Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
I have to have a car like that!
She has to pay her own tuition at college.
He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
She might be my advisor next semester.
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htm
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htm
Helping and
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs
#
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
I shall go now.
He had won the election.
They did write that novel together.
I am going now.
He was winning the election.
They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
"Shall we go now?"
"Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
You really shouldn't do that.
If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
I don't study at night.
She doesn't work here anymore.
Do you attend this school?
Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
Did your grandmother know Truman?
Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
I have to have a car like that!
She has to pay her own tuition at college.
He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
She might be my advisor next semester.
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htm
affirmative and negative agreement
Affirmative & Negative Agreement
Affirmative Agreement
When indicating that one person or thing does something and then adding that another does the same, use the word “so” or “too”. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction “and”, followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.
• When a form of the verb be is used in the main clause, the same tense of verb be is used in the simple statement that follows.
Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ S + verb (be) + too]
Example: I am happy and you are too.
Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ so + verb (be) + S ]
Example: I am happy and so are you.
• When a compound verb (auxiliary +verb), for example, will go, should do, has done, have written, must examine, etc., occurs in the main clause, the auxiliary of the main verb is used in the simple statement, and the subject and verb must agree.
Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ S + auxiliary only + too ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and Bella should too.
Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ so + auxiliary only + S ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and so does Bella.
• When any verb except be appears without any auxiliaries in the main clause, the auxiliary do, does, or did is used in the simple statement. The subject and verb must agree and the tense must be the same.
Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ S + do, does ,or did + too ]
Example: Tae Yeon plays guitar every day and Jessica does too.
Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ so + do, does, or did + S ]
Example: Yuri sung “Gee” and so did Yoona.
Additional Examples:
1. Rose likes to fly, and her brother does too.
2. They will leave at noon, and I will too.
3. He has an early appointment, and so do I.
4. She has already written her composition, and so have her friends.
5. Their plane is arriving at nine o’clock, and so is mine.
6. I should go grocery shopping this afternoon, and so should my neighbor.
7. We like to swim in the pool, and they do too.
8. Our Spanish teacher loves to travel, and so do we.
9. He has lived in Mexico for five years, and you have too.
10. I must write them a letter, and she must too.
Negative Agreement
“Either” and “neither” function in simple statements much like “so” and “too” in affirmative sentences. However, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. The same rules for auxiliaries, be and do, does, or did apply.
Negative statement + and + [ S + negative auxiliary or be + either]
Negative statement + and + [ neither + positive auxiliary or be + S ]
Examples:
I didn’t see Bella this morning. Edward didn’t see Bella this morning
I didn’t see Bella this morning and Edward didn’t either.
I didn’t see Bella this morning and neither did Edward.
Additional examples:
1. The children shouldn’t take that medicine, and neither should she.
2. We don’t plan to attend the concert, and neither do they.
3. I don’t like tennis, and he doesn’t either.
4. She didn’t see anyone she knew, and neither did Tim.
5. The Yankees couldn’t play due to the bad weather, and neither could the Angels.
6. Mary can’t type well, and her sister can’t either.
7. I’m not interested in reading that book, and neither is she.
8. They won’t have to work on weekends, and we won’t either.
9. I can’t stand listening to that music, and she can’t either.
10. Michael doesn’t speak English, and his family doesn’t either.
11. That scientist isn’t too happy with the project, and neither are her supervisors.
12. We can’t study in the library, and they can’t either.
13. I haven’t worked there long, and neither have you.
14. You didn’t pay the rent, and she didn’t either.
15. They didn’t want anything to drink, and neither did we.
16. John shouldn’t run so fast, and neither should you.
17. The students won’t accept the dean’s decision, and the faculty won’t either.
18. Your class hasn’t begun yet, and neither has mine.
19. She couldn’t attend the lecture, and her sister couldn’t either.
20. He didn’t know the answer, and neither did I.
Reference: Cliffs, Test of English as a Foreign Language Preparation
http://fnflife.blogspot.com/2010/07/affirmative-negative-aggrement.html
Affirmative Agreement
When indicating that one person or thing does something and then adding that another does the same, use the word “so” or “too”. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction “and”, followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.
• When a form of the verb be is used in the main clause, the same tense of verb be is used in the simple statement that follows.
Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ S + verb (be) + too]
Example: I am happy and you are too.
Affirmative statement (be) + and + [ so + verb (be) + S ]
Example: I am happy and so are you.
• When a compound verb (auxiliary +verb), for example, will go, should do, has done, have written, must examine, etc., occurs in the main clause, the auxiliary of the main verb is used in the simple statement, and the subject and verb must agree.
Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ S + auxiliary only + too ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and Bella should too.
Affirmative statement (compound verb) + and + [ so + auxiliary only + S ]
Example: Edward should do his homework and so does Bella.
• When any verb except be appears without any auxiliaries in the main clause, the auxiliary do, does, or did is used in the simple statement. The subject and verb must agree and the tense must be the same.
Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ S + do, does ,or did + too ]
Example: Tae Yeon plays guitar every day and Jessica does too.
Affirmative statement (single verb except be) + and + [ so + do, does, or did + S ]
Example: Yuri sung “Gee” and so did Yoona.
Additional Examples:
1. Rose likes to fly, and her brother does too.
2. They will leave at noon, and I will too.
3. He has an early appointment, and so do I.
4. She has already written her composition, and so have her friends.
5. Their plane is arriving at nine o’clock, and so is mine.
6. I should go grocery shopping this afternoon, and so should my neighbor.
7. We like to swim in the pool, and they do too.
8. Our Spanish teacher loves to travel, and so do we.
9. He has lived in Mexico for five years, and you have too.
10. I must write them a letter, and she must too.
Negative Agreement
“Either” and “neither” function in simple statements much like “so” and “too” in affirmative sentences. However, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. The same rules for auxiliaries, be and do, does, or did apply.
Negative statement + and + [ S + negative auxiliary or be + either]
Negative statement + and + [ neither + positive auxiliary or be + S ]
Examples:
I didn’t see Bella this morning. Edward didn’t see Bella this morning
I didn’t see Bella this morning and Edward didn’t either.
I didn’t see Bella this morning and neither did Edward.
Additional examples:
1. The children shouldn’t take that medicine, and neither should she.
2. We don’t plan to attend the concert, and neither do they.
3. I don’t like tennis, and he doesn’t either.
4. She didn’t see anyone she knew, and neither did Tim.
5. The Yankees couldn’t play due to the bad weather, and neither could the Angels.
6. Mary can’t type well, and her sister can’t either.
7. I’m not interested in reading that book, and neither is she.
8. They won’t have to work on weekends, and we won’t either.
9. I can’t stand listening to that music, and she can’t either.
10. Michael doesn’t speak English, and his family doesn’t either.
11. That scientist isn’t too happy with the project, and neither are her supervisors.
12. We can’t study in the library, and they can’t either.
13. I haven’t worked there long, and neither have you.
14. You didn’t pay the rent, and she didn’t either.
15. They didn’t want anything to drink, and neither did we.
16. John shouldn’t run so fast, and neither should you.
17. The students won’t accept the dean’s decision, and the faculty won’t either.
18. Your class hasn’t begun yet, and neither has mine.
19. She couldn’t attend the lecture, and her sister couldn’t either.
20. He didn’t know the answer, and neither did I.
Reference: Cliffs, Test of English as a Foreign Language Preparation
http://fnflife.blogspot.com/2010/07/affirmative-negative-aggrement.html
complement
Complement (linguistics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In grammar and linguistics, the term complement is used with different meanings, so it is difficult to give a single precise definition and explanation.[1] In a broad general sense however, a complement can be understood as a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression.[2] The terms complement and argument overlap in meaning and use. A given complement is therefore often also an argument. Complements are not adjuncts, however.
Contents
1 Predicative, subject and object complements
2 Complements as arguments
3 Complements broadly construed
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Predicative, subject and object complements
In many traditional grammars, the terms subject complement and object complement are employed to denote the predicative expressions (e.g. predicative adjectives and nominals) that serve to assign a property to a subject or object,[3] e.g.
Ryan is upset. – Predicative adjective as subject complement
Rachelle is the boss. – Predicative nominal as subject complement
That made Michael lazy. – Predicative adjective as object complement
We call Rachelle the boss. – Predicative nominal as object complement
Although widespread in school grammar, this use of terminology is not employed by many modern theories of syntax, which typically view the expressions in bold as part of the clause predicate, which means they are not complements of the subject or object, but rather they are properties that are predicated of the subject or object.
Complements as arguments
In many modern grammars (for instance in those that build on the X-bar framework), the object argument of a verbal predicate is called a complement. In fact, this use of the term is the one that currently dominates in linguistics. A main aspect of this understanding of complements is that the subject is usually NOT a complement of the predicate,[4] e.g.
He wiped the counter. – the counter is the object complement of the verb wiped.
She scoured the tub. – the tub is the object complement of the verb scoured.
The noun phrases (NPs) the counter and the tub are necessary to complete the meaning of the verbs wiped and scoured, respectively; hence they are complements.
While it is less common to do so, one sometimes extends this reasoning to subject arguments:[5]
He wiped the counter. – He is the subject complement of the verb wiped.
She scoured the tub. – She is the subject complement of the verb scoured.
In these examples, the subject and object arguments are taken to be complements. In this area, then, the terms complement and argument overlap in meaning and use. Note that this practice takes a subject complement to be something very different from the subject complements of traditional grammar, which are predicative expressions, as just mentioned above.
Complements broadly construed
Construed in the broadest sense, any time a given expression is somehow necessary in order to render another expression "complete", it can be characterized as a complement of that expression, e.g.[6]
with the class – The NP the class is the complement of the preposition with.
Jim will help. – The main verb help is the complement of the auxiliary verb will.
Chris gave up. – The particle up is the complement of the verb gave.
as a friend – The NP a friend is the complement of the particle of comparison as.
Construed in this broad sense, many complements cannot be understood as arguments. The argument concept is tied to the predicate concept in a way that the complement concept is not.
In linguistics, an adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence, clause, or phrase that, when removed, will not affect the remainder of the sentence except to discard from it some auxiliary information.[1] A more detailed definition of the adjunct emphasizes its attribute as a modifying form, word, or phrase that depends on another form, word, or phrase, being an element of clause structure with adverbial function.[2] An adjunct is not an argument (nor is it a predicative expression), and an argument is not an adjunct. The argument-adjunct distinction is central in most theories of syntax and semantics. The terminology used to denote arguments and adjuncts can vary depending on the theory at hand. Some dependency grammars, for instance, employ the term circonstant (instead of adjunct), following Tesnière (1959).
See also
Adjunct
Argument
Predicate
Predicative expression
Subject complement
Notes
See Matthews (1981:142f.) and Huddleston (1988:note 2) for good overviews of the different uses of the term complement.
See Crystal (1997:75).
For examples of grammars that employ the terms subject complement and object complement to denote predicative expressions, see Matthews (1981:3ff.), Downing and Locke (1992:64f.), Thomas (1993:46, 49), Brinton (2000:183f.).
For examples of this "narrow" understanding of complements, see for instance Lester (1971:83), Horrocks (1987:63), Borsley (1991:60ff.), Cowper (1992:67), Burton-Roberts (1997:41), Fromkin et al. (2000:119).
For examples of theories that take the subject to be a complement of the matrix verb/predicate, see for instance Matthews (1981:101), Pollard and Sag (1994:23), Miller (2011:56).
See Radford (2004:329) for an explanation of complements along these lines.
References
Borsley, R. 1991. Syntactic theory: A unified approach. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Brinton, L. 2000. The structure of modern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Burton-Roberts, N. 1997. Analysing sentences: An introduction to English grammar. London: Longman.
Cowper, E. 1992. A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The government-binding approach. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Crystal, D. 1997. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, 4th edition, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Downing, A. and P. Locke. 1992. English grammar: A university course, second edition. London: Routledge.
Fromkin, V. et al. 2000. Linguistics: An introduction to linguistic theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Horrocks, G. 1986. Generative Grammar. Longman: London.
Huddleston, R. 1988. English grammar: An outline. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lester, M. 1971. Introductory transformational grammar of English. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Matthews, P. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, J. 2011. A critical introduction to syntax. London: continuum.
Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1994. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Chicago: The University Press of Chicago.
Radford, A. 2004. English syntax: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, L. 1993. Beginning syntax. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
External links
http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/objects.htm
http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000020.htm
http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/cl_oc.htm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In grammar and linguistics, the term complement is used with different meanings, so it is difficult to give a single precise definition and explanation.[1] In a broad general sense however, a complement can be understood as a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression.[2] The terms complement and argument overlap in meaning and use. A given complement is therefore often also an argument. Complements are not adjuncts, however.
Contents
1 Predicative, subject and object complements
2 Complements as arguments
3 Complements broadly construed
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Predicative, subject and object complements
In many traditional grammars, the terms subject complement and object complement are employed to denote the predicative expressions (e.g. predicative adjectives and nominals) that serve to assign a property to a subject or object,[3] e.g.
Ryan is upset. – Predicative adjective as subject complement
Rachelle is the boss. – Predicative nominal as subject complement
That made Michael lazy. – Predicative adjective as object complement
We call Rachelle the boss. – Predicative nominal as object complement
Although widespread in school grammar, this use of terminology is not employed by many modern theories of syntax, which typically view the expressions in bold as part of the clause predicate, which means they are not complements of the subject or object, but rather they are properties that are predicated of the subject or object.
Complements as arguments
In many modern grammars (for instance in those that build on the X-bar framework), the object argument of a verbal predicate is called a complement. In fact, this use of the term is the one that currently dominates in linguistics. A main aspect of this understanding of complements is that the subject is usually NOT a complement of the predicate,[4] e.g.
He wiped the counter. – the counter is the object complement of the verb wiped.
She scoured the tub. – the tub is the object complement of the verb scoured.
The noun phrases (NPs) the counter and the tub are necessary to complete the meaning of the verbs wiped and scoured, respectively; hence they are complements.
While it is less common to do so, one sometimes extends this reasoning to subject arguments:[5]
He wiped the counter. – He is the subject complement of the verb wiped.
She scoured the tub. – She is the subject complement of the verb scoured.
In these examples, the subject and object arguments are taken to be complements. In this area, then, the terms complement and argument overlap in meaning and use. Note that this practice takes a subject complement to be something very different from the subject complements of traditional grammar, which are predicative expressions, as just mentioned above.
Complements broadly construed
Construed in the broadest sense, any time a given expression is somehow necessary in order to render another expression "complete", it can be characterized as a complement of that expression, e.g.[6]
with the class – The NP the class is the complement of the preposition with.
Jim will help. – The main verb help is the complement of the auxiliary verb will.
Chris gave up. – The particle up is the complement of the verb gave.
as a friend – The NP a friend is the complement of the particle of comparison as.
Construed in this broad sense, many complements cannot be understood as arguments. The argument concept is tied to the predicate concept in a way that the complement concept is not.
In linguistics, an adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence, clause, or phrase that, when removed, will not affect the remainder of the sentence except to discard from it some auxiliary information.[1] A more detailed definition of the adjunct emphasizes its attribute as a modifying form, word, or phrase that depends on another form, word, or phrase, being an element of clause structure with adverbial function.[2] An adjunct is not an argument (nor is it a predicative expression), and an argument is not an adjunct. The argument-adjunct distinction is central in most theories of syntax and semantics. The terminology used to denote arguments and adjuncts can vary depending on the theory at hand. Some dependency grammars, for instance, employ the term circonstant (instead of adjunct), following Tesnière (1959).
See also
Adjunct
Argument
Predicate
Predicative expression
Subject complement
Notes
See Matthews (1981:142f.) and Huddleston (1988:note 2) for good overviews of the different uses of the term complement.
See Crystal (1997:75).
For examples of grammars that employ the terms subject complement and object complement to denote predicative expressions, see Matthews (1981:3ff.), Downing and Locke (1992:64f.), Thomas (1993:46, 49), Brinton (2000:183f.).
For examples of this "narrow" understanding of complements, see for instance Lester (1971:83), Horrocks (1987:63), Borsley (1991:60ff.), Cowper (1992:67), Burton-Roberts (1997:41), Fromkin et al. (2000:119).
For examples of theories that take the subject to be a complement of the matrix verb/predicate, see for instance Matthews (1981:101), Pollard and Sag (1994:23), Miller (2011:56).
See Radford (2004:329) for an explanation of complements along these lines.
References
Borsley, R. 1991. Syntactic theory: A unified approach. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Brinton, L. 2000. The structure of modern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Burton-Roberts, N. 1997. Analysing sentences: An introduction to English grammar. London: Longman.
Cowper, E. 1992. A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The government-binding approach. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Crystal, D. 1997. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, 4th edition, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Downing, A. and P. Locke. 1992. English grammar: A university course, second edition. London: Routledge.
Fromkin, V. et al. 2000. Linguistics: An introduction to linguistic theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Horrocks, G. 1986. Generative Grammar. Longman: London.
Huddleston, R. 1988. English grammar: An outline. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lester, M. 1971. Introductory transformational grammar of English. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Matthews, P. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, J. 2011. A critical introduction to syntax. London: continuum.
Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1994. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Chicago: The University Press of Chicago.
Radford, A. 2004. English syntax: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, L. 1993. Beginning syntax. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
External links
http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/objcompl.html
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/objects.htm
http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000020.htm
http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/cl_oc.htm
Selasa, 07 April 2015
Subject – Verb Agreement
Subject – Verb Agreement
Subject-verb agreement adalah struktur dalam bahasa inggris, dimana antara subject dan verb nya harus sesuai, subject dan verb ato prediketnya itu harus sama Singular (tunggal) ato sama-sama plural (jamak).
1. Singular subject – singular verb
Yang dimaksud dengan singular subject adalah subject pronoun he, she, dan it, atau nouns yang dapat digantikan dengan he, she atau it; Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan singular verbs adalah verb1+es/s, is/was, serta verb phrase seperti: is/was + verb-ing/verb3, has +verb3, has been verb-ing dan has been verb3.
Pola-pola singular subject-singular verb disajikan pada tabel berikut:
Singular subject Singular verb Tenses
1
He/She/it
verb1 + es/s
simpe present
2
He/She/it
is + verb-ing
present continous
3
He/She/it
was + verb-ing
past contonous
4
He/She/it
has + verb3
present perfect
5
He/She/it
has + been + verb-ing
present perfect continuous
6
He/She/it
is going to + verb1
simple future
7
He/She/It
is going to + be verb-ing
future continuous
8
He/She/it
was going to + verb1
past future
9
He/She/It
was going to + be verb-ing
past future continuous
Jika kalimatnya tidak menggunakan verb, kita gunakan to be :
Singular subject Singular verb Tenses
10
He/She/it
is
simple present
11
He/She/it
is + being
present continuous
12
He/She/it
was
simple past
13
He/She/it
was + being
past continuous
14
He/She/It
has been
present perfect
10
He/She/it
has + been + being
present perfect continuous
16
He/She/it
is going to + be
simple future
17
He/She/it
is going to + be being
future continuous
18
He/She/it
was going to + be
past future
19
He/She/it
was going to + be being
past future continuous
2. Plural subject – plural verb
Yang dimaksud dengan plural subject adalah subject pronouns seperti I, we, you, they, dan semua plural nouns. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan plural verbs adalah verbs dan verb phrase selain singular verbs di atas.
Pola-pola plural subject-plural verb disajikan pada tabel berikut:
Plural subject Plural verb Tense
1
I/we/you/they
verb1
simple present
2
I/we/you/they
am/are + verb-ing
present continuous
3
I/we/you/they
was/were + verb-ing
past continuous
4
I/we/you/they
have+ verb3
present perfect
5
I/we/you/they
have + been + verb-ing
present perfect continuous
6
I/we/you/they
am/are going to + verb1
simple future
7
I/we/you/they
am/are going to + be verb-ing
future continuous
8
I/we/you/they
was/were going to + verb1
past future
9
I/we/you/they
was/were going to + be verb-ing
past future continuous
Jika kalimatnya tidak menggunakan verb (kalimat nominal), maka digunakan to be :
Plural subject Plural verb Tense
10
I/we/you/they
am/are
simple present
11
I/we/you/they
am/are + being
present continuous
12
I/we/you/they
was/were
simple past
13
I/we/you/they
was/were + being
past continuous
14
I/we/you/they
have been
present perfect
10
I/we/you/they
have + been + being
present perfect continuous
16
I/we/you/they
am/are going to + be
simple future
17
I/we/you/they
am/are going to + be being
future continuous
18 I/we/you/they
was/were going to + be
past future
19 I/we/you/they
was/were going to + be being
past future continuous
Contoh:
Singular subject-singular verb Plural subject-plural verb
1
She dances
They dance
2
She is dancing
They are dancing
3
She was dancing
They were dancing
4
She has danced
They have danced
5
She has been dancing
They have been dancing
6
She is going to dance
They are going to dance
7
She is going to be dancing
They are going to be dancing
8
She was going to dance
They were going to dance
9 She was going to be dancing They were going to be dancing
10
She is nice to me.
They are nice to me.
11
She is being nice to me.
They are being nice to me.
12
She was nice to me.
They were nice to me.
13
She was being nice to me.
They were being nice to me.
14
She has been nice to me.
They have been nice to me.
10
She has been being nice to me.
They have been being nice to me.
16
She is going to be nice to me.
They are going to be nice to me.
17
She is going to be being nice to me.
They are going to be being nice to me.
18
She was going to be nice to me.
They were going to be nice to me.
19
She was going to be being nice to me.
They were going to be being nice to me.
Latihan Soal dan Jawabannya :
1. The elevator worked very well yesterday. (Lift itu berfungsi dengan baik kemarin)
2. The elevators worked very well yesterday. (Lift-lift itu berfungsi dengan baik kemarin)
3. Andi had gone before Ani arrived. (Andi telah pergi sebelum Ani tiba).
4. Andi and Amir had gone before Ani arrived. (Andi dan Amir telah pergi sebelum Ani tiba).
5. My mother will go to Bali tomorrow. (Ibuku akan pergi ke Bali besok).
6. My mother and my father will go to Bali tomorrow. (Ibuku dan ayahku akan pergi ke Bali besok).
7. Jenny would have passed the test if she had studied well. (Jenny telah lulus ujian jika dia telah belajar dengan baik).
8. Jenny and Julie would have passed the test if they had studied well. (Jenny dan Julie telah lulus ujian jika mereka telah belajar dengan baik).
9. You go straight ahead then turn left. (Kamu jalan lurus ke depan lalu belok kiri.)
10. I do submit the task. (Saya harus mengirimkan tugas tersebut.)
Referensi :
http://www.wordsmile.com/pengertian-contoh-kalimat-subject-verb-agreement
http://randipratama110990.blogspot.com/2011/11/subject-and-verb-agreement.html
http://paremaputri.blogspot.com/2011/05/subject-verb-agreement.
https://pralitaputrinoviari.wordpress.com/2015/03/27/subject-verb-agreement/
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